Importance of Prayer & Ruling of its Abandonment
Facing the Qiblah & Intention in the Prayer
Etiquettes of Walking to Prayer and its Description
Description of Prayer Continued
Description of Prayer Continued
Description of Prayer Continued
Pillars and Mandatory Acts of Prayer
Two Prostrations of Forgetfulness
Supererogatory (Voluntary) Prayers
Supererogatory (Voluntary) Prayers Continued
Times of Prohibition of (Supererogatory) Prayer
Congregational Prayers & Latecomers
Jumu'ah (Congregational Friday) Prayer
Introduction & Commercial and Selling
Selling of Primary & Secondary Commodities
Cancellation Options in Transactions
Cancellation Options Continued
Debt Transference & Guarantor-ship
Mortgaging & Security Deposits
Partnership & Companies Continued
Reviving Barren Lands & Per-Job Wage
Lost and Found Property & Foundlings
Prize Money & Deposits for Safekeeping
The Book of Li‘ân (Mutual Invocation of Curses)
[When Is Li‘ân Required?]
If the man accuses his adult, sane, free, and chaste Muslim wife of adultery and then does not go through li‘ân, he is subject to the ḥadd (punishment prescribed by Divine revelation). 1426
إِذَا قَذَفَ الرَّجُلُ امْرَأَتَهُ، الْبَالِغَةَ، اْلعَاقِلَةَ، اْلحُرَّةُ، الْمُسْلِمَةُ، بالزنا، لَزِمَهُ اْلحَدُّ، إِنْ لَمْ يُلاَعِنْ
1425. Introduction
Li‘ân means mutual invocation of curses; it is also translated as ‘public imprecation’. In the context of this chapter, it is the invocation of curses (upon oneself) as a prescribed legal procedure. This procedure was prescribed to resolve the dilemma that arises when a man sees his wife committing adultery. If he accused any other woman but failed to produce witnesses, he would be punished. Because of the husband’s position and the nature of the marital relationship, though, he does not have to produce four witnesses (to avoid the punishment); instead, he can take public oaths in support of his accusation. If the wife counters his oaths with her own, she will ultimately be acquitted, but he will not be punished either. Li‘ân was also prescribed in previous scriptures, as in the Old Testament’s Numbers 5:11-33. The Islamic form, however, does not entail uncovering the woman’s head or making her drink “the water that causes the curse.” Also, in Islam, the husband, not only the wife, must take the oaths. If the woman is too shy to come to the courthouse, the judge will send someone to oversee the li‘ân at her home (A).
1426.This is the ḥadd of qadhf (accusation of zinâ without proof) mentioned in the saying of Allah:
{And those who accuse chaste women and then do not produce four witnesses – lash them with 80 lashes and do not accept from them testimony ever after. And those are the defiantly disobedient.} (an-Noor 24: 2)
وَالَّذِينَ يَرْمُونَ الْمُحْصَنَاتِ ثُمَّ لَمْ يَأْتُوا بِأَرْبَعَةِ شُهَدَاءَ فَاجْلِدُوهُمْ ثَمَانِينَ جَلْدَةً وَلَا تَقْبَلُوا لَهُمْ شَهَادَةً أَبَدًا ۚ وَأُولَٰئِكَ هُمُ الْفَاسِقُونَ
If she is a slave woman or dhimmi,1427 then he is subject to a discretionary punishment (ta‘zeer) if he does not go through li‘ân and she sues him.
وَإِنْ كَانَتْ ذِمِّيَّةً أَوْ أَمَةً، فَعَلَيْهِ التَّعْزِيْرُ، إِنْ لَمْ يُلاَعِنْ، وَلاَ يُعَرَّضُ لَهُ حَتَّى تُطَالِبُهُ
[Description of Li‘ân]
Li‘ân is to say, in front of the ruler or his agent, “I bear witness by Allah that I am truthful in accusing my wife of adultery,” while pointing at her. If she is not present, he mentions her full name. Before the fifth oath, he should be stopped and told, “Fear Allah, for it is binding,1428 and the torment of this life is easier than the torment of the hereafter.” If he insists on proceeding, then he says, “May the curse of Allah be upon me if I am lying concerning the adultery I accused my wife of.” 1429
وَاللِّعَانُ أَنْ يَقُوْلَ بِحَضْرَةِ اْلحَاكِمِ أَوْ نَائِبِهِ، أَشْهَدُ بِاللهِ إِنِّيْ لَمِنَ الصَّادِقِيْنَ، فِيْمَا رَمَيْتُ بِهِ امْرَأَتِيْ هَذِهِ مِنَ الزِّنَى، وَيُشِيْرُ إِلَيْهَا، فَإِنْ لَمْ تَكُنْ حَاضِرَةً سَمَّاهَا وَنَسَبَهَا، ثُمَّ يُوْقَفُ عِنْدَ اْلخَامِسَةِ ، فَيُقَالُ لَهُ: اتَّقِ اللهَ فَإِنَّهَا اْلمُوْجِبَةُ، وَعَذَابُ الدُّنْيَا أَهْوَنُ مِنْ عَذَابِ اْلآخِرَةِ، فَإِنْ أَبَى إِلاَّ أَنْ يُتِمَّ فَلْيَقُلْ: وَإِنَّ لَعْنَةَ اللهِ عَلَيْهِ إِنْ كَانَ مِنَ اْلكَاذِبِيْنَ فِيْمَا رَمَيْتُ بِهِ امْرَأَتِيْ هَذِهِ مِنَ الزِّنَى
But it averts the punishment from her if she bears witness four times (with an oath) by Allah, that he
وَيَدْرَأُ عَنْهَا اْلعَذَابَ: أَنْ تَشْهَدَ أَرْبَعَ شَهَادَاتٍ بِاللهِ إِنَّهُ لَمِنَ
1427.A dhimmi is a non-Muslim under the protection of the Muslim state. The differentiation between the rights of Muslim and non-Muslim women here was based on the differences in their obligations. The non-Muslim wife would be still able to take the oaths and refute her Muslim husband.
1428.It will make the torment of Allah binding on him.
1429.For Allah said:
{And those who accuse their wives [of adultery] and have no witnesses except themselves – then the witness of one of them [shall be] four testimonies [swearing] by Allah that indeed, he is of the truthful. And the fifth [oath will be] that the curse of Allah be upon him if he should be among the liars.} (an-Noor 24: 6-7)
وَالَّذِينَ يَرْمُونَ أَزْوَاجَهُمْ وَلَمْ يَكُن لَّهُمْ شُهَدَاءُ إِلَّا أَنفُسُهُمْ فَشَهَادَةُ أَحَدِهِمْ أَرْبَعُ شَهَادَاتٍ بِاللَّهِ ۙ إِنَّهُ لَمِنَ الصَّادِقِينَ. وَالْخَامِسَةُ أَنَّ لَعْنَتَ اللَّهِ عَلَيْهِ إِن كَانَ مِنَ الْكَاذِبِينَ
(her husband) is lying concerning the adultery he is accusing her of. She will be stopped before the fifth time and discouraged from it just as the man is; if she insists on proceeding, she must invoke the wrath of Allah on herself if he (her accuser) is telling the truth about the accusation of adultery against her. 1430
الْكَاذِبِيْنَ فِيْمَا رَمَانِيْ بِهِ مِنَ الزِّناَ، ثُمَّ تُوْقَفُ عِنْدَ اْلخَامِسَةِ وَتُخَوَّفُ، كَمَا خُوِّفَ الرَّجُلُ، فَإِنْ أَبَتْ إِلاَّ أَنْ تُتِمَّ، فَلْتَقُلْ: وَإِنَّ غَضَبَ اللهِ عَلَيْهَا إِنْ كَانَ مِنَ الصَّادِقِيْنَ فِيْمَا رَمَانِيْ بِهِ زَوْجِيْ هَذَا مِنَ الزِّناَ
[Consequences of Li‘ân]
The judge should then say, “I separate you two,” making her forever unmarriageable to him.
ثُمَّ يَقُوْلُ اْلحَاكِمُ: قَدْ فَرَّقْتُ بَيْنَكُمَا، فَتَحْرُمُ عَلَيْهِ تَحْرِيْمًا مُؤَبَّدًا
If they have a child and he denies paternity, then (the child) is not attributed to him, whether still in the womb or already born, if he has not previously acknowledged his paternity. This is because of Ibn ‘Umar’s narration that a man went through li‘ân against his wife and denied the paternity of her child, so the Messenger of Allah (SA) separated them and attributed the child to his mother. 1431
وَإِنْ كَانَ بَيْنَهُمَا وَلَدٌ فَنَفَاهُ انْتَفَى عَنْهُ، سَوَاءٌ كَانَ حَمْلاً أَوْ مَوْلُوْدًا، مَا لَمْ يَكُنْ أَقَر َّبِهِ، أَوْ وَجَدَ مِنْهُ مَا يَدُلُّ عَلىٰ اْلإِقْرَارِ بِهِ، لِمَا روى ابن عمر: أَنَّ رَجُلاً لاَعَنَ امْرَأَتَهُ وَانْتَفَى مِنْ وَلَدِهَا، فَفَرَّقَ رَسُوْلُ اللهِ بَيْنَهُمَا، وَأَلْحَقَ اْلوَلَدَ بِاْلأُمِّ
Subsection: If his wife or slave woman, with whom he admits having had intercourse, gives birth to a child who could possibly be his, then his paternity of the child is immediately established. This is because the Messenger of Allah (SA) said, “The
فَصْلٌ: وَمَنْ وَلَدَتِ امْرَأَتُهُ أَوْ أَمَتُهُ الَّتِيْ أَقَرَّ بِوَطْئِهَا وَلَدًا يُمْكِنُ كَوْنُهُ مِنْهُ، لَحِقَهُ نَسَبُهُ، لِقَوْلِ رَسُوْلِ اللهِ : "اْلوَلَدُ لِلْفِرَاشِ وَلِلْعَاهِرِ اْلحَجَرُ
1430.For Allah said:
{But it will prevent punishment from her if she gives four testimonies [swearing] by Allah that indeed, he is of the liars. And the fifth [oath will be] that the wrath of Allah be upon her if he was of the truthful.} (an-Noor 24: 8-9)
وَيَدْرَأُ عَنْهَا الْعَذَابَ أَن تَشْهَدَ أَرْبَعَ شَهَادَاتٍ بِاللَّهِ ۙ إِنَّهُ لَمِنَ الْكَاذِبِينَ. وَالْخَامِسَةَ أَنَّ غَضَبَ اللَّهِ عَلَيْهَا إِن كَانَ مِنَ الصَّادِقِينَ
1431.(Ag)
child belongs to the bed (legitimate partner), and the adulterer gets stoned.” 1432
[Denial of Paternity]
The wife’s child can never be denied paternity except through li‘ân. 1433
وَلاَ يَنْتَفِيْ وَلَدُ الْمَرْأَةِ إِلاَّ بِاللِّعَانِ وَلاَ وَلَدُ اْلأَمَةِ إِلاَّ بِدَعْوَى اسْتِبْرَائِهَا
If it is not possible that (the child) is his – such as when his slave woman gives birth less than six months 1434 from the time he had intercourse with her; or his wife gives birth in less than that period from the time it was possible for them to be together;1435 or he cannot possibly be a father,
وَإِنْ لَمْ يَكُنْ كَوْنُهُ مِنْهُ، مِثْلَ أَنْ تَلِدَ أَمَتُهُ لأَقَلَّ مِنْ سِتَّةِ أَشْهُرٍ مُنْذُ وَطْئِهَا، أَوِ امْرَأَتُهُ لأَقَلَّ مِنْ ذٰلِكَ مُنْذُ أَمْكَنَ اجْتِمَاعُهُمَا، أَوْ كَانَ الزَّوْجُ مِمَّنْ لاَ يُوْلَدُ لِمِثْلِهِ، كَمَنْ لَهُ دُوْنَ عَشْرِ سِنِيْنَ، أَوِ
1432. (Ag – from ‘Â’ishah) See the appendix on attributing a child to the illegitimate biological father (fornicator).
1433. Role of DNA Testing in Denial of Paternity
It is not permissible in the Sharia to depend on DNA evidence to deny paternity or to give it precedence over li‘ân. However, DNA can be used as a corroborative proof to support the husband’s demand for li‘ân, or it could contradict his claim and thereby dissuade him from li‘ân. (AMJA’s Family Code) In the commentator’s view, when the DNA proves the paternity of the husband, the court may decline to take his case for the denial of paternity, although it may still hear his charges concerning the wife’s adultery. This is because DNA results have a great level of certainty, particularly when done more than once and in separate laboratories.
1434. Duration of Pregnancy
Today, a premature baby of less than six months gestational age may survive due to advanced medical intervention. Therefore, experts must be consulted in these cases, and the attribution of the infant to the husband should not be automatically dismissed. According to AMJA’s Family Code, Article 105, “The minimum duration of a pregnancy is six months (and experts must be consulted for less than that), and its maximum duration is legally a full lunar year.”
1435. For example, if they got married while in two different countries, it would only have been possible for them to consummate the marriage later when they were physically together.
Subsection: If two men mistakenly have intercourse with one woman in the same period of purity (between two menstruations); or if two co-owners of a slave woman have intercourse with their slave woman during the same period of purity, and she then gives birth to a child; or if two men seek the attribution of the same child whose lineage is unknown; (the child) will be shown to the physiognomists,1438 along with them (the two men) or their relatives, and will then be attributed to whomever the physiognomists attribute him or her to.1439 If they attribute (the child) to both men,
فَصْلٌ: وَإِذَا وَطِئَ رَجُلاَنِ امْرَأَةً فِيْ طُهْرٍ وَاحِدٍ بِشُبْهَةٍ، أَوْ وَطِئَ الشَّرِيْكَانِ أَمَتَهَمَا فِيْ طُهْرٍ وَاحِدٍ، فَأَتَتْ بِوَلَدٍ، أَوِ ادَّعَى نَسَبَ مَجْهُوْلِ النَّسَبِ رَجُلاَنِ، أُرِي القافَة معهما أو مع أقاربهما فألحِقَ بمن ألحَقوه منهما، وإن ألحَقوه بهما لَحِقَ بهما، وَإِنْ أَشْكَلَ أَمْرُهُ، أَوْ تَعَارَضَ قَوْلُ اْلقَافَةِ، أَوْ لَمْ يُوْجَدْ قَافَةٌ، تُرِكَ حَتَّى يَبْلُغَ، فَيُلْحَقَ بِمَنِ انْتَسَبَ إِلَيْهِ مِنْهُمَا
1436. (A/SM): he cannot possibly be a father if he is castrated and has undergone penectomy, not either one of them separately.
1437. In these cases, he does not need to go through li‘ân to deny the paternity of the child.
1438. Qiyâfah (Physiognomy)
The qiyâfah of people is an investigative science that studies the physical characteristics of two individuals to assert their ancestry and filiality of one another… This practice is done by speculation and intuition, not by evidences and certainty, and Allah – the Glorified and High – knows best. (Abjad al-‘Uloom, translated by the commentator)
1439. The Utility of Qiyâfah (Physiognomy)
When the paternity of a child is disputed, for instance because two men mistakenly had intercourse with a woman during the same non-menstrual period, the majority (A) + (+M, +S) held that qiyâfah should be practiced, whereas (H) held that the child should be attributed to them both. This is evidence of Islam’s propensity to assert the actual ancestry by means of the available capabilities, and qiyâfah was the most ideal means to in those eras. The majority was correct in acting upon qiyâfah whenever it was the best available means because it provides that which is most probable, which is usually the basis for rulings. Their evidence for this came from the Sunnah; the Messenger of Allah (SA) used it himself, as related in the story of Hilâl ibn Umayyah and Shareek ibn Saḥmâ’. He said after the li‘ân was conducted:
he or she will be attributed to both. If the attribution becomes difficult, the physiognomists disagree, or there are no physiognomists (that is, neither can prove his claim), the child will be left to choose who to belong to, once he or she reaches puberty. 1440
The opinion of the physiognomist will not be accepted unless he is trustworthy and has been tried and proven to be skillful.1441
وَلاَ يُقْبَلُ قَوْلُ اْلقَائِفِ إِلاَّ أَنْ يَكُوْنَ عَدْلاً، مُجَرَّباً فِي اْلإِصَابَةِ
“Watch her. If she brings him forth with dark eyes, wide hips, and full legs, then he belongs to Shareek ibn Saḥmâ’.” (B – from Ibn ‘Abbâs)
أَبْصِروها فإنْ جاءتْ به أكْحَلَ العينين سابغ الألْيَتَيْن خَدَلَّجَ الساقين فهو لشَرِيكِ بن سَحْماَء
The use of physiognomy, despite it being speculative, is an indication that the use of DNA testing is supportable in Sharia. It should also have much wider scope of operation than physiognomy.
1440. In the meantime, both claimants will share responsibility for the child’s expenses. Whenever available, DNA testing is certainly superior to the expert opinion of the physiognomist.
1441. We can use the same level of caution and precision that the fuqahâ’ used in the past, by demanding that DNA testing be repeated more than once, in two or more laboratories, under blinded conditions, for cross-validation.
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